3rd Dynasty (2650-2575)

3rd Dynasty (2650-2575)

 

3rd Dynasty Quick Facts

Chronology
Period: Early Dynastic Period
Follows: 2nd Dynasty
Precedes: 4th Dynasty
From: 2650 BC
To: 2575 BC

3rd Dynasty Kings

Horus Netjerikhet (2650-2631)
Horus Sekhemhet (2631-2623)
Horus Khaba (2623-2619)
Horus Sanakht (2619-2599)
Huni (2599-2575)

The 3rd Dynasty follows a period when the country was divided into a Northern and a Southern kingdom and firmly reestablished the central authority over the entire country. The architectural achievements of this dynasty stress its pivotal role in the transition of the Early Dynastic Period into the Old Kingdom.
As was the case with the 2nd Dynasty, however, establishing the chronology of the 3rd Dynasty is somewhat problematic. This has the following reasons:

Except for Huni, who is accepted to have been the dynasty's last king, the actual monuments of the 3rd Dynasty kings mention their Horus-names whereas the later king-lists are based on what is assumed to be their birth names (nomen).
The kinglists name kings that seem to be unattested by archaeological sources. It thus becomes necessary to match the names of the 3rd Dynasty monuments with those of the king-lists.

The Turin King-list has placed Nebka at the head of the dynasty, before Djoser (Horus Netjerikhet). Manetho has also placed a king before Djoser as the founder of the dynasty. Other kinglists do not mention Nebka at all, making Djoser the founder of the Dynasty. According to the Papyrus Westcar, which lists some of Kheops' predecessors, Nebka must be placed between somewhere Djoser and Huni.
Although most kinglists give five kings that can be  placed in this dynasty, there are some inconsistencies involving the 4th king of the list. This king is referred to as Hudjefa by the Turin Canon, a reference normally used for kings whose names were deliberately or accidentally damaged in the original source(s) consulted by the composer or copyists of the kinglist.  If the destruction of the name was deliberate, then this may be seen as an indication of some dynastic troubles.
The other king-lists, however, record the name Sedjes or Neferkare as the 4th king of the Dynasty. This can mean that either all three names refer to the same or to different kings. If all these names, including Hudjefa, refer to the same king, it is hard to explain why one king would be referred to as Sedjes and as Neferkare. If they refer to different kings then the Hudjefa of the Turin Canon refers to Sedjes, to Neferkare or to a third, unknown king. In this case, however, it would be hard to explain why the Turin Canon only notes 5 kings instead of 6 or 7.

Manetho, through the different copies of his original work, lists even more kings in the 3rd dynasty and credits it with a total duration of over 200 years. Both the number of kings and the dynasties duration are generally accepted to have been largely exaggerated. However, the higher number of kings given by Manetho does suggest that the number of 5 kings mentioned in the older king-lists may be too low.

The builder of the famous Step Pyramid at Saqqara is identified throughout his complex as Horus Netjerikhet. An inscription left by the 19th Dynasty prince Khaemwaset, the famous son of Ramesses II, in the complex crediting the building to Djoser, has allowed us to equate Horus Netjerikhet with Djoser(-Ti) of the king-lists.

The Step Pyramid of Netjerikhet is the oldest known building to be completely made of stone.

At least two other buildings, somewhat similar to Netjerikhet's Step-Pyramid, have been started but left unfinished during the 3rd Dynasty as well: the buried pyramid at Saqqara and the layered pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan. Based on archaeological and architectural evidence, it is safe to say that both monuments were built after Netjerikhet's. In the buried pyramid of Saqqara, the oldest of the two, the Horus-name of Sekhemkhet has been found. If an inscription found in this pyramid may be interpreted as Sekhemkhet's Nebti-name, then Sekhemkhet may be equated to Djoser-Teti, the successor of Djoser (Netjerikhet) in the kinglists. This interpretation is supported by the style and location of his pyramid and by the mention of Imhotep, the architect of Netjerikhet's pyramid, in an inscription in Sekhemkhet's monument.
In the pyramid of Zawiyet el-Aryan, no royal name has been found. In a tomb located in a nearby private cemetery, however, the Horus-name of Khaba was found. This has led archaeologists to believe that the layered pyramid of Zawiyet el-Aryan was built by Horus Khaba. This king would then come after Sekhemkhet but before Huni, which could equate him with the fourth position in the king-lists: king Hudjefa. 
Two other kings, known only through their Horus-names, have belonged to the 3rd Dynasty as well: Horus Sanakht and Horus Qa-Hedjet.
Neither king can be placed with certainty. It has been suggested that Sanakht may have been the Horus-name of Nebka, but the sole argument that supports the identification of Sanakht as Nebka is a source found in the Sinai that mentions  Horus-name Sanakht and the sign ka that could be interpreted as part of the nomen of the king. The ka sign, however, is part of a word that spells mefkat, meaning 'turquoise', the main mineral the Egyptians were after in the Sinai.
If Sanakht can indeed be equated to Nebka, then it is clear that the Turin King-list has mistakenly placed Nebka before Djoser (Netjerikhet), as the archaeological record points to Netjerikhet having been a predecessor of Sanakht.

Horus embraces Qa-Hedjet.
Source: Allen e.a., L'art égyptien au temps des pyramides, 1999, p. 155

The identification of Qa-Hejdet with any of the kings in the King-lists remains rather problematic.
In view of the sources it may be tempting to equate the Horus Qa-Hedjet with Huni, the last king of the dynasty, particularly because the Horus-name of Huni is not known either. This equation, however, is purely hypothetical and not generally accepted among Egyptologists.
Regardless of our problems in identifying some of its kings, the single most important achievement of the 3rd Dynasty in the history of Ancient Egypt was the transition in architecture from wood and brick to natural stone. The building of the Step Pyramid complex for  Horus Netjerikhet at Saqqara is a giant leap forward in technology and architecture. So great that it determined the general shape of Egyptian buildings for the millennia to come. Netjerikhet, under the name of Djoser, and even more his genius architect Imhotep, would remain renowned throughout Ancient Egypt's long history.
Eventhough Netjerikhet's immediate successors failed to continue the great building project of their ancestor, the 3rd Dynasty played a pivotal role in the transition from Early Dynastic Egypt into the Age of the Pyramids. This is why, in many history books, the 3rd Dynasty is placed at the start of the Old Kingdom and not at the end of the Early Dynastic Period. However, more and more Egyptologists are now inclined to include this dynasty in the Early Dynastic Period, because culturally it resembles the two first dynasties more than it does the following.

Horus Netjerikhet (2650-2631)

Horus Sekhemhet (2631-2623)

Horus Khaba (2623-2619)

Horus Sanakht (2619-2599)

Huni (2599-2575)

Khasekhemwi

  Khasekhemwi

 Khasekhemwi, who in all likelihood started his reign as Horus Khasekhem, brought back unity to a country that appears to have been dived after the reign of Horus Ninetjer. 

 

Statue of Khasekhemwy,

Khasekhemwi Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd
Predecessors:
Seth Peribsen (?)
Horus Sekhemib (?)
Successor: Horus Netjerikhet
Reign: abt. 2670 - 2650 BC
Highest Year: 8th cattle count. 18 years on the Annals Stone.Family
Wife: Nimaathap
Children: Horus Netjerikhet, HetephernebtiPrincipal Monuments
Great Enclosure at Saqqara
Shunet ez-Zebib
Tomb V at Umm el-Qa’ab

Biography of  Khasekhemwi

Khasekhemwi is the last king of the 2nd Dynasty. He probably came to power as Horus Khasekhem, which means “Horus, the powerful one appears” and may initially only have ruled part of the country. Somewhere during his reign, he changed his titulary to  Khasekhemwi, meaning “Horus and Set, the two powerful ones appear”, most likely hinting at a reunification of the country after it had been divided following the reign of Horus Ninetjer earlier in the 2nd Dynasty. The addition of the phrase “the two lords are at peace in him” to his titulary, only confirms this reunification.
Having come to power using a Horus Name, it has often been assumed that his opponent, the king he had to defeat in order to reunite the country, was Seth Peribsen, whose titulary indeed does distinguish him for the Horus-kings, perhaps even of the Horus-king who ruled the other part of Egypt. This, however, is contradicted by the find of seal impressions of Horus Sekhemib at the entrance of Peribsen’s tomb, pointing to Sekhemib as Peribsen’s successor. If Khasekhem and Peribsen were contemporary kings, it is more likely that Khasekhem would have had to defeat Sekhemib in his reconquest of the country. But even this seems unlikely, as both Peribsen and Khasekhemwi were buried at the royal necropolis of Umm el-Qa’ab, a possible indication that both kings had their initial power base in the south of the country.
Khasekhemwi led several military campaigns, among others against “the Northerners”. Although it is very tempting to identify these “Northerners” as the king or kings who ruled the north of Egypt, it is equally possible that the inscription refers to a campaign outside of the country, or perhaps to an attempted invasion of the country by a people coming from the north. If the “Northerners” can indeed be identified with a dynasty ruling in the north of Egypt, this would confirm that Khasekhem’s initial realm was located in the south of the country, making him a successor and not an enemy of Seth Peribsen.
A total of 8 cattle counts, which, during his reign were held every two years, have been found. The 18 year cells recorded on the fragments of the Annals Stone confirm that Khasekhemwi’s reign lasted for 17 to 18 years. During this time, he undertook several building projects, mainly in the south of Egypt. Among his principal buildings were a fortress at Nekhen and an enclosure near Umm el-Qa’ab known today as Shunet ez-Zebib. The so-called Great Enclosure, a large structure reminiscent of Shunet ez-Zebib, may probably also be credited to him and would be one of the rare buildings dated to his reign found in the north of Egypt. It is the oldest known building to have been built, at least partially, in natural stone and may have served as inspiration for Netjerikhet’s nearby funerary complex.
Likely as it is that Khasekhemwi was a successor of Peribsen and Sekhemib, relationship with his two predecessors, nor that with his contemporary kings, can as yet be established.
Seal impressions bearing the name of queen Nimaathap were found in Khasekhemwi’s tomb, making it likely that she was his wife. During the reign of Netjerikhet, she also bears the title “King’s Mother”, thus establishing that she was Netjerikhet’s mother.  She may also have been the mother of queen Hetephernebti, in which case Netjerikhet would have been married to his full sister.
Khasekhemwi is the last king to have been buried in a tomb at the royal necropolis of Umm el-Qa’ab, be it slightly off to the south-west of the tombs of the 1st Dynasty. Several finds in and near this tomb dated to the reign of Netjerikhet confirm the identity of Khasekhemwi’s successor.
A large funerary enclosure now known as Shunet ez-Zebib, was built at some distance near Khasekhemwi’s tomb. Built in brick stones, it is believed to have been intended for the king’s funerary cult.

Titulary of Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi

Horus Name

1. Hr xa sxmHorus, the power has appeared

Horus-Seth Name
This name is a variation on the Horus Name. It combines the traditional Horus Name, with the Seth Name that was used by Seth Peribsen.

2. Hr-stX xa sxm.wj nTr.wj Htp im=fHorus-Seth, the two powers have appeared, the two gods are at peace in him

Nebti Name

3. nb.tj xa sxm.wj nTr.wj Htp im=fThe Two Ladies, the two powers have appeared, the two gods are at peace in him
4. nb.tj xa sxm.wj nbw X(.t)=snThe Two Ladies, their bodies are golden

Kinglists

5. DADAjDjadjay
6. bbtjBebti
7. bbtj///Bebti///

Manetho
Manetho does not appear to refer to a king whose name might resemble any of the names that have been used to identify Khasekhemwi.
Alternative names in modern-day literature
Horus-Khasekhem, Horus-Chasechem, Horus-Khasekhemwi, Chasechem, Chasechemoui, Horus-Chasechemoui

Great Enclosure at Saqqara

To the west of the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet, a large rectangular structure was discovered composed mainly of a gigantic enclosure wall. With its 600 by 300 metres, this enclosure encompasses an area that is even considerably larger than Netjerikhet's neighbouring complex.
It as long been assumed -without any substantial examination of this structure- that this wall, known as the ‘Great Enclosure‘ or by its Arab name ‘Gisr el-Mudir‘ (wall of the director), was part of an unfinished mortuary complex of an unidentified 3rd Dynasty king. There is, however, no trace of a step pyramid inside this wall. Furthermore, this wall seems to have been completed, which would make the building of a pyramid within its compounds quite impossible.
Recent research by the EES has shown that Gisr el-Mudir may at least be one generation older than the Horus Netjerikhet, thus dating to the 2nd Dynasty.
Traces of other such enclosures have also been found: one to the immediate west of Netjerikhet's complex and one apparently between Sekhemkhet's pyramid and the 'Great Enclosure'.
It has been suggested that these enclosures bear a striking resemblance to similar structures found near Umm el-Qa’ab. The largest of these enclosures, named Shunet ez-Zebib, has been identified as having belonged to Khasekhemwi. It is believed that this structure was intended as a simulacrum of the royal palace, a copy that the king would take with him to the hereafter. If indeed these palace-copies are similar to the Saqqara enclosures, then it is likely that the Saqqara enclosures were related to the 2nd Dynasty tombs which were located in the vicinity.
If the enclosures at Saqqara are indeed of 2nd Dynasty date and not, as was assumed in the past, of the 3rd Dynasty, then the ‘Great Enclosure’ is to be considered the oldest known building constructed, at least partially, in stone!

Shunet ez-Zebib at Abydos

Shunet ez-Zebib is the modern, Arabic name of a large mudbrick structure built during the reign of Khasekhemwi in the desert of Abydos, to the north of the Early Dynastic royal cemetery of Umm el-Qa’ab. It measures approximately 124 by 56 metres, and its outer walls are estimated to have been 10 to 11 metres high. There are traces of buildings inside the structure, possibly two chapels and benches, as well as a lot of jars that were meant to contain beer.
The proximity of this structure to the royal necropolis and the presence of similar but older structures in the vicinity, has lead researchers to interpret this building as a funerary enclosure, linked to the funerary cult of the deceased king.
The structure is also similar to a “fortress” in Nekhen, to the south, also built by Khasekhemwi, as well as the so-called Great Enclosure in Saqqara. As such, this enclosure and its likes, may have been the precursors of Netjerikhet’s funerary complex, that combined the tomb with the funerary enclosure.

Inside Shunet ez-Zebid. 

Tomb V at Umm el-Qa'ab

Khasekhemwi built his tomb at Umm el-Qa’ab, at some distance to the south of the tomb of Qa’a. His was the last royal tomb to have been built at this site, his successors favouring the Memphite region, in the North, just below the Nile Delta. This can be seen as move of Egypt’s central authority from the Abydene area to Memphis.

View on the tomb of Khasekhemwi at Umm el-Qa’ab. 

Map of tomb V at Umm el-Qa’ab.

The tomb was excavated by Petrie during his 1901 expedition at the site and named “Tomb V” by him.
Its trapezoid shape measuring 68.97 metres long by 10.04 metres on its shortest side and 17.06 metres on its longest side, makes it stand apart from the other royal tombs at Umm el-Qa’ab.
It consists of a centrally located burial room constructed of dressed limestone blocks. It is surrounded by several smaller, inter-connecting chambers with mudbrick walls, that were probably used for storage.
Unlike the other royal tombs at Umm el-Qa’ab, Khasekhemwi’s tomb has two entrances, one in the north, the other in the south.
Among the finds in this tomb are several ointment jars made of stone with a golden lid, a pitcher, a bronze basin and a 60 cm. long ceremonial sceptre made of highly polished beads, copper and gold. The delicate make of the sceptre suggests that it was intended for ritual purposes, perhaps, even, just to be buried along with the king. 

One of the golden rimmed stone ointment jars found in Khasekhemwi’s tomb, now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Sekhemib

  Sekhemib

Although Horus Sekhemib is attested in several archaeological sources,
 his reign and even his identity have been subject 
to a lot of speculation resulting in many different theories.

 

Sekhemib Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd Dynasty
Predecessor: Seth Peribsen (?)
Successor: Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi (?)

Biography of  Sekhemib

Despite being attested through several archaeological sources, very little is known about Horus Sekhemib. Most source material being limited to the south of Egypt, it has often been assumed that his realm was limited to a region stretching from Naqada in Middle Egypt to Elephantine in the south, while a different king ruled over the north of the country.
Because objects bearing Sekhemib’s name were found at the tomb of Peribsen at Umm el-Qa’ab, it has sometimes been assumed that Sekhemib and Peribsen were, in fact, the same person who, for reasons unknown, changed his name and titulary somewhere during his reign. Against this, however, it needs to be pointed out that Sekhemib’s name has been found mainly around the entrance to Peribsen’s tomb, a pattern that is consistent with that of a king burying his predecessor. It is thus more likely that Sekhemib was Peribsen’s successor.
If this is correct, then Peribsen, having a Seth Name, was succeeded and buried by a king bearing a Horus Name. This may contradict the hypotheses that Peribsen’s Seth name was related to the division of the kingdom into two realms, one ruled by a Horus king, the other by a Seth king.
No tomb has been identified as having belonged to Sekhemib.

Titulary of  Sekhemib

Horus Name

1. Hr sxm ibHorus, powerful of heart
2. Hr sxm ib pr n mAa.tHorus, powerful of heart, who has come forth of Maat

Nebti Name

3. nb.tj sxm ib pr n mAa.tThe Two Ladies, powerful of heart, who has come forth of Maat

Weneg

Weneg

Weneg Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd Dynasty
Predecessor: Horus Ninetjer (?)
Successor: Nubnefer (?), Seth Peribsen

The Nebti Name Weneg.

Weneg is only known through a limited number of objects that mention his Nebti Name. The absence of a Horus Name, or alternatively, perhaps of a Seth Name, has led to some speculation as to the identity of this king.
The hypothesis that Weneg was the Nebti Name of Horus Nebre is based on a highly damaged inscription where Nebre’s name is followed by what could be reconstructed as the hieroglyph read as Weneg. The inscription is, however, too damaged and too vague to be conclusive.
There appears to be a consensus that Weneg corresponds with the Wadjnes from the Abydos and Saqqara King-Lists and Manetho’s Tlas, making him a successor of Ninetjer. The fact, however, that finds bearing his name are limited to Saqqara, may indicate that he ruled only a part of the country.
Because the source material is very limited, very little is known about Weneg’s reign. The 54 years credited to Ninetjer’s successor in the Turin King-List are clearly wrong. The 17 years credited to him by Manetho seem closer to reality, while the hypothetical reconstruction of the Annals Stone points to a 12-year reign.
There are a few inscriptions referring to a king named Nubnefer, who may have been Weneg’s predecessor or, perhaps more likely successor. Like Weneg, Nubnefer’s name was only found in the Saqqara region, perhaps indicating that Nubnefer’s realm was also limited to the north of Egypt, while, the south was ruled by another king, perhaps Seth Peribsen.
No tomb has, as yet, been identified as Weneg’s, but it is very likely to be located at Saqqara, perhaps underneath the North Court or Western Massif of the complex of Netjerikhet, or in the area near the tombs of Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer.

Horus Ninetjer

Horus Ninetjer

Horus Ninetjer, the third king of the 2nd Dynasty,

 ruled for at least 24 years and the last of his Dynasty

 known to have been buried at Saqqara. 

 

Ninetjer Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd
Predecessor: Horus Nebre
Successors:
Weneg (?)
Seth Peribsen (?)
Highest Year: 24 year cells on the Annals Stone fragments.Principal Monuments
Tomb: Gallery Tomb at Saqqara

 

Biography of Horus Ninetjer

According to the statue of the priest Hotepdief, Ninetjer was the successor of Horus Nebre, making him the third king of the 2nd Dynasty. The relationship between these two kings is unknown, as are the names of any wives or children of Ninetjer.His name has been found throughout Egypt and even in a rock inscription in Lower Nubia, which could point to a military expedition against Nubia. 

 

Statue of Ninetjer wearing the White Crown and a short dress, reminiscent of the cloth worn during the Heb Sed festival.

Fifteen years of the reign of Ninetjer have been recorded on the Palermo Fragment of the Annals Stone. Only partially preserved, the first of the year cells refers to the 3rd cattle count. As Ninetjer seems to have had a cattle count every even year of his reign, this year cell coincides with the 6th year of his reign.The last nine years have been recorded on Cairo Fragment CF1, but are barely preserved at all. The first cell in this sequence refers to the “Appearance of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt”, which usually happened during an odd numbered year. Ninetjer’s last year is recorded in the ninth year cell of CF1, meaning he passed away during an odd numbered year of his reign.
Based on some reconstructions of the Annals Stone, Ninetjer would have ruled for 43 or 45 years, which comes fairly close to the 47 years Manetho has given him.
A small statue showing the king wearing the short dress that was typical for the Heb Sed festival, may indicate that he celebrated his jubiliee at least once.
The 94 years that the Turin King-List credits Ninetjer, are in line with the long reigns that this document has recorded for Egypt’s early kings, but are a huge exaggeration.

 

 

Years 6 to 20 from Ninetjer’s reign, as recorded on the Palermo Fragment of the Annals Stone.

Most of the year cells that are readable provide little more information than the typically recurring ritual activities, such as the biennial “Following of Horus” and the cattle counts that happened every even year and the almost biennial “Appearance of the King” of either Upper or Lower Egypt, or both, in most of the odd years.
The cell corresponding with Ninetjer’s 13th year deviates from this standard and poses somewhat of an enigma. Rather than starting with the “Appearance of the King”, it starts with a reference to the first celebration of an otherwise unattested ritual named “Adoring Horus in the Sky”. The cell also contains two groups of signs that are usually translated as “Hacking of (the city of) Shema-Re” and “Hacking of (the city of) Ha”. Neither of the cities mentioned, has been located, but the reference, if translated correctly, could point towards the striking down of a rebellion, perhaps the precursor of the turmoil that would follow Ninetjer’s reign. Alternatively, it is also possible that “hacking” may not be the correct translation and that “founding” was what was meant, in which case, Ninetjer would not have had 2 cities destroyed, but rather had them built.
There is a great deal of speculation regarding the last years of Ninetjer’s reign, as several Egyptologists have postulated that this king split up his kingdom into two parts, Upper and Lower Egypt, each to be ruled by a different king. While there are plenty of signs of a division of the country after Ninetjer, it is not certain that this was the result of any decision Ninetjer would have made.
Cairo Fragment CF1 of the Annals Stone may refer to the god Seth in the year immediately after Ninetjer’s death, perhaps an indication of the rising cult of this god which would culminate in his name replacing that of the god Horus in the royal titulary during the reign of Seth Peribsen.
Ninetjer was buried in a tomb, consisting of a series of underground galleries and corridors, at Saqqara, near the tomb of Hotepsekhemwi.

Titulary of Horus Ninetjer

Horus Name

1. Hr n(j) nTrHorus, the one who belongs to the god

Nebti Name

2. nb.tj n(j) nTrThe Two Ladies, the one who belongs to the god

Golden Name (?)

3. rn nwbGolden of name

Kinglists

4. bA n nTrRam of the god
5. bA ntrwDivine Ba
6. bA n nTrBa of the God

Manetho
Africanus: Binôthris
Eusebius: Biophis
Alternative names in modern-day literature
Horus-Ninetjer, Ninetcher, Horus-Ninetcher

Tomb of Horus Ninetjer

A structure quite similar to the tomb of Hotepsekhemwi was found to the east of it, slightly more away from the much more recent pyramid of Unas at Saqqara.
A cursory examination has brought to light some seals bearing the name of the 2nd Dynasty king Ninetjer, which has allowed us to identify this tomb as Ninetjer's.
When it was first entered by archaeologists, it was also found to contain thousands of mummies of the Late Dynastic Period and later. These mummies clearly belonged to intrusive burials of that date.

Rough map of the substructure of Ninetjer’s tomb at Saqqara. North is located on the righthand side of the map.

Horus Nebre

Horus Nebre

Very little is known about the reign of the second king of the 2nd Dynasty, Horus Nebre. The inclusion of the solar disk in his Horus name is often seen as the oldest known reference to the solar god Ra, whose cult would play an import role throughout the history of Ancient Egypt.

 

Nebre Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd
Predecessor: Horus Hotepsekhemwi
Successor: Horus Ninetjer
Family
Children: Perneb (?)

 

Biography of Horus Nebre

If little was known about Hotepsekhemwi and his reign, even less is known about his successor, Nebre. That Nebre was indeed Hotepsekhemwi’s successor, is shown by several sources.

The Horus names of Hotepsekhemwi and Nebre standing before the earliest known depiction of the goddess Bastet.

Seal impressions bearing Nebre’s name in a tomb  where Hotepsekhemwi’s name also occurs, either point to Nebre having taken care of the burial of Hotepsekhemwi or to Nebre usurping that tomb. A statue of a priest named Hotepdief lists the names of Hotepsekhemwi, Nebre and Ninetjer. Although this statue lists the funerary cults for which Hotepdief was responsible, it is often seen as a confirmation of the succession of the first three kings of the 2nd Dynasty as well.
An inscription on a stone bowl shows the names of Hotepsekhemwi and Nebre in front of the goddess Bastet. This source not even may confirm the succession order between the two kings, the fact that they are shown together may perhaps also point towards a co-regency between the two of them.
The relationship between Nebre and his successor is not known, nor are the names of any wives he may have had. If Gallery B at Saqqara belonged to Nebre rather than to his predecessor, Perneb, a “son of the king” and priest of Sopdu, may have been Nebre’s son.
The number of years credited to Nebre is missing in the Turin King-List, but Manetho grants him a rather unlikely 39 years. The fragments of the Annals Stone do not mention Nebre, but from a reconstruction of that stone, it has been deduced that the total number of years of the reigns of Hotepsekhemwi and Nebre would have been 39 years. Granting the former some 25 years, Nebre would have reigned about 14 years.
During his reign, Nebre did not leave many traces. His name suggests that the cult of the solar god Re was on the rise, perhaps an evolution of the solar god Netjer-Akhti who became important during the reign of Hotepsekhemwi.
Most surviving documents from his reign refer to the usual cultic and administrative activities and offer us little insight into Nebre’s policies. 
It is not certain where Nebre was buried. That he had a funerary cult at Saqqara is shown by the statue of Bedjaw, but no tomb has been definitely identified. Unless he combined his own funerary cult with that of his predecessor, speculation that he usurped Hotepsekhemwi’s tomb may be contradicted by the statue of Bedjaw, which lists three funerary cults and not two.

 

Titulary of Horus Nebre

Horus Name

1. Hr nb raHorus Nebre

Kinglists

2. kA kA.wKakau
2. kA kA.wKakau

Manetho
Africanus: Kaiechôs
Eusebius: Kaichôos, Chôos, Chechous
Alternative names in modern-day literature
Horus-Nebre, Reneb, Horus-Reneb, Nebra, Horus-Nebra, Raneb, Horus Raneb

Horus Hotepsekhemwi

Horus Hotepsekhemwi

Horus Hotepsekhemwi, the successor of Horus Qa'a, is the first king of the 2nd Dynasty. His name meaning 'the two powers are at peace', it is often postulated that he brought peace to Egypt at a time when the country was divided. His choice to move the royal necropolis to Saqqara, indicates a break with his predecessors that might justify the start of a new dynasty.
 

Hotepsekhemwi Quick Facts

Chronology
Dynasty: 2nd
Predecessor: Horus Qa'a
Successor: Horus NebreFamily
Children: Perneb (?)Principal Monuments
Tomb: Gallery B at Saqqara

Biography of Horus Hotepsekhemwi

Very little is known about Hotepsekhemwi, who Manetho has placed at the start of the 2nd Dynasty. Although the Turin King-List does not distinguish between the first five dynasties, which could imply that every king from this period was part of the same royal family, the relationship between Hotepsekhemwi and his predecessor, Horus Qa’a, is not known.
The name of his wife is also not know, but a “son of the king” and priest of the god Sopdu, named Perneb, may be his son.
Hotepsekhemwi may have come to power during, or, as his name “the two powers are at peace” seems to suggest, a period of conflict. The appearance of the names of two kings, Horus Ba and Horus Seneferka -the latter believed by some to have been an alternative name for Qa’a- towards the end of the 1st Dynasty may confirm that there was some upheaval prior to Hotepsekhemwi’s reign. There are indications that the tomb of Qa’a at Umm el-Qa’ab was robbed shortly after the king’s burial, and that it was subsequently re-closed by Hotepsekhemwi. In doing so, Hotepsekhemwi may have attempted to show himself to be the proper successor.
According to Manetho, Hotepsekhemwi ruled for 38 years, while the Turin King-Lists grants him a very unlikely reign of 95 years. Based on the traces he left behind, Hotepsekhemwi’s rule is estimated to have lasted for about 25 years. During this time, the cult of the god Akhti or Netjer-Akhti, a solar god whose name literally means “Horizon-dweller”, became more important.
The cults of Lower-Egyptian gods such as Bastet and Sopdu appear to have received some attention as well, prompting some Egyptologists to postulate a Lower-Egyptian origin for Hotepsekhemwi.
He also appears to have founded a new royal estate named “The star of Horus rises” (or “Horus, the rising star”).
For his burial, Hotepsekhemwi chose to break with some 1st Dynasty funerary traditions. Although he did bury or re-bury his predecessor at Umm el-Qa’ab, he chose Saqqara, close to the capital of Memphis and close to the tombs of the high officials that served the kings of the 1st Dynasty, as the location for his own burial. The structure of the tomb believed to have been his, no longer consists of a series of pits dug into the ground, but of a series of underground galleries connected by corridors and leading to the burial chamber. There is no trace of subsidiary graves connected to his, and thus the 1st Dynasty custom of retainer sacrifice had come to an end.

Titulary of Horus Hotepsekhemwi

Horus Name

1. Hr Htp sxm.wjHorus, the two powers are at peace

Nebti Name

2. Htp nb.tjThe Two Ladies are at peace

Kinglists

3. bDAwBedjaw
4. bDAwBedjaw
5. bAw nTrThe powers of the god
6. bAw nTrThe powers of the god

Manetho
Africanus: Boêthos, Boëthos
Eusebius: Bôchos, BôchusAlternative names in modern-day literature
Hetepsekhemwi, Hetepsekhemoui, Hotepsekhemoui, Hetepsechemwi, Hetepsechemoui

Tomb of Horus Hotepsekhemwi

The subterranean structure believed to be the oldest 2nd Dynasty royal tomb at Saqqara is located at what is now called the Unas cemetery. Part of its galleries are even located underneath the Unas Pyramid and it is surprising that 5th Dynasty tomb-builders did not accidentally stumble upon it.

Rough map of the substructure of Horus Hotepsekhemwi’s tomb at Saqqara.
Source: Stadelmann, Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 2. Dynastie in Sakkara, BdE 97/2 p. 297.

Seal impressions found inside the structure and showing the Horus names of Hotepsekhemwi and his successor Nebre can mean one of two things:
either the tomb was built for and used by Hotepsekhemwi and Nebre left his seal impressions when he buried his predecessor, and brought the required funerary offerings
or it was intended for Hotepsekhemwi but it was usurped by Nebre.The latter of these two possibilities appears to be the least likely, so it is in general agreed that this tomb belonged to Hotepsekhemwi.
With its north-south axis spanning a length of approximately 120 metres and its width of about 50 metres, it is also unlikely that the tomb was created for a non-royal person: the largest non-royal tombs of the Early Dynastic Period or the Old Kingdom are considerably smaller. And contrary to the Archaic Tombs in Saqqara-North, no private names appear to have been found in this tomb.
The entrance to the tomb is located in the north, a feature that would be common to the royal tombs of the Old Kingdom. From the entrance, a long 4 metre high passage, constructed in an open trench covered with immense blocks of stone, descends deeper into the Saqqara rock. 
A couple of metres into this passage, a doorway opens upon a corridor to the west. A bit further down, a second doorway gives access to a corridor to the east. On each side of both corridors are 7 long and narrow rooms that are interpreted as magazines.
Just before the central corridor ceases to descend, a large portcullis slab, made of granite, was intended to block the further passage. After that, the corridor continues horizontally and was blocked by three more portcullises. More magazines open onto the east and the west of this corridor. After about 35 metres, the ceiling of the corridor is lowered to some 2 metres and the corridor becomes subterranean.
To the east and west of the central corridor, a maze of magazines continues to unfold, until finally, at about 110 metres from the entrance, the burial chamber was found ... empty.

Entrance to the tomb of Hotepsekhemwi at Saqqara

If this tomb ever had a superstructure, nothing remains of it. But it is very likely that the superstructure was removed for the construction of the pyramid and mortuary tomb of Unas, some 500 years later, if they even survived that long.

2nd Dynasty (2800-2650)

2nd Dynasty (2800-2650)

2nd Dynasty Quick Facts

Chronology
Period: Early Dynastic Period
Follows: 1st Dynasty
Precedes: 3rd Dynasty
From: 2800 BC
To: 2650 BC

2nd Dynasty Kings

Horus Hotepsekhemwi
Horus Nebre
Horus Ninetjer
Weneg
Seth Peribsen
Horus Sekhemib
Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi

Of all the Ancient Egyptian dynasties, the history and chronology of the 2nd Dynasty are among the most difficult to grasp. This is caused by a lack of consistent sources, itself probably the result of a difficult political situation.
Most kinglists as well as Manetho mention several kings who are not attested by the archaeological record. The Turin King-List, the Saqqara King-List and Manetho all have 9 kings in this dynasty.
9 being the number of an Ennead, an association of important gods, it has been proposed that the kinglists contain some fictive names in order to represent the second dynasty as an Ennead. As most kinglists seem to predate the division of what we now call the Early Dynastic Period into separate dynasties, this proposal would seem rather difficult to support.
Several names are only attested in either Upper or Lower Egypt, which could perhaps mean that, at least for some time during the 2nd Dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms.

Archaeological record	Abydos List	Saqqara List	Turin King-List	Manetho
Hotepsekhemwi	Bedjaw	Baw-Netjer	(Netjer)-Baw	Boêthos
Nebre	Ka-Kaw	Ka-Kaw	Ka-Kkaw	Kaiêkhos
Ninetjer	Ba-en-Netjer	Ba-netjeru	(Ba)-en-Netjer	Binêthris
Weneg-sekhemwi (?)	Wadjnes	Wadjnes		Tlas
	Senedy	Sened	Sened	Sethenês
				Khaires
	Neferkare	Aaka / Neferka		Nepherkheres
		Neferkasokar	Neferkasokar	Sesokhris
		hudjefa	hudjefa
Peribsen
Sekhemib Perenmaat
Khasekhemwi	Djadjay	Bebti	Bebti	Kheneres

A comparison of the archaeological record with the king-lists and with Manetho reveals the difficulty to grasp the chronology and history of the 2nd Dynasty.

Horus Hotepsekhemwi is generally accepted to have been the first king of the 2nd Dynasty. Because his name means “the two powerful ones are at peace”  it has been suggested that this king reunited Egypt after some turmoil that may have divided the country towards the end of the 1st Dynasty. Hotepsekhemwi’s name was found at the entrance of the tomb of Horus Qa’a, the last king of the 1st Dynasty, indication that Hotepsekhemwi buried Qa'a and must therefore have been his successor, but also that he took this name at the very start of his reign, which contradicts the view that Hotepsekhemwi inherited a divided country.
The succession of the first three kings of the 2nd Dynasty is found on the back of the right shoulder of the statue of a 3rd Dynasty priest named Hotepdief as follows: Hotepsekhemwi, Nebre and Ninetjer. 

Statue of Hotepdief bearing the names of the first three kings of the 2nd Dynasty.
Source: Clayton, Kroniek van de Farao's, p. 27.

The first and the last of these kings had tombs at Saqqara, the necropolis of Memphis. Although Nebre’s tomb itself has not (yet) been localised with certainty, a funerary stela found in Memphis would imply that it must be found in the Memphite region as well. Some seal impressions found in Hotepsekhemwi's tomb bearing Nebre's name have led some researchers to think that Nebre may have usurped his predecessor's tomb. Against this it should be noted that the presence of Nebre's name in the tomb of Hotepsekhemwi can equally mean that Nebre buried his predecessor or that he had reasons to inspect it somewhere during his reign.
The move of the royal cemetery from Umm el-Qa’ab in Middle Egypt, where the kings of the 1st Dynasty were buried, to Saqqara represents an important change in tradition, but the scarce archaeological sources have not allowed us to understand its historical, political and religious significance. This move was probably related with the rising importance of Memphis, even though it is not clear which was cause and which was effect.
Equally significant are the changed design of the royal tombs and the fact that the practice of retainer sacrifice was abandoned. Where the 1st Dynasty tombs were more a collection of pits cut out into the ground, the known royal tombs of the early 2nd Dynasty consisted of long corridors dug into the ground, with several narrow storage rooms to the left and right of them. At the end of the corridor lay the burial chamber. This structure was presumably covered with a mudbrick superstructure.
During the reign of Hotepsekhemwi an early form of the solar god, Netjer-akhti, meaning “the god of the horizon”, was worshipped. The name of Hotepsekhemwi’s successor, Nebre, which means “Re (the sun) is the master”, may demonstrate the new dynasty's support of the solar god, whose cult was centred at Heliopolis, to the north east of Memphis.
There are several indications of a collapse of central authority at the end of the reign of the third king of this dynasty, Ninetjer. Before order was re-established under a single rule at the end of the Dynasty, the country appears to have been ruled by a number of poorly attested kings several of which may have controled only parts of the country.
Ninetjer's assumed successor is known only by his Nebti Name, Weneg. This name has only been found at Saqqara, which probably means that Weneg may only have held power over the north of Egypt.
The second name mentioned after Ninetjer in the kinglists, Sened, is not known through any contemporary sources at all. The oldest known sources mentioning this name are dated to the 4th Dynasty. One of the sources, found in the tomb of a man named Sheri, refers to a mortuary cult for Sened at Saqqara.
The same source also suggests a connection between Sened's cult and that of Peribsen, a king of the 2nd Dynasty who is only attested in the south of Egypt. This could mean that Sened and Peribsen either were the same person, or that they each ruled a part of the country at the same time and that the division of Egypt at that time was one of peaceful co-existence.
The name Peribsen has not been found outside of the south of Egypt. He is the only known king whose official name refers to the god Seth instead of Horus. The change in the titulary is significant because it does not only represent an import break with the past, but also because in the later religious tradition, both gods were sometimes considered as adversaries. This may indicate a change in the royal ideology, or it may have been the result of the division of Egypt into two territories.
Even though Peribsen enjoyed a funerary cult at Saqqara, at least from the 4th Dynasty on, he was buried at the royal cemetery of the 1st Dynasty of Umm el-Qa'ab.
A name closely associated with Peribsen's is that of the Horus Sekhemib. Seal impressions with this name have been found at the entrance of Peribsen's tomb. As was the case with Hotepsekhemwi and Qa’a, this probably means that Sekhemib saw to the last rites of Peribsen, making him Peribsen’s successor. There are, however, many Egyptologists that tend to believe that Peribsen probably his reign as Horus Sekhemib and then, for unknown reasons, changed his name to Seth Peribsen.

Statue of Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi.

The last king of the 2nd Dynasty started his reign as Horus Khasekhem. Because this name is only attested at Hierakonpolis, in the south of Egypt, it is believed that Khasekhem only ruled this part of the country. Inscriptions from his reign point to rebellions and war against a "northern enemy". If this “northern enemy” can be taken to be located in Egypt, it is possible that during Khasekhem, the relationship between the two kingdoms had taken a turn for the worse.
Khasekhem’s war would ultimately re-unite Egypt under one single reign, at which point the Horus Khasekhem changed his name to Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi. This name combines the traditional Horus with Peribsen's Seth. As both Peribsen and Khasekhemwi had a tomb at Umm el-Qa’ab, it is very unlikely that Peribsen was the “northern enemy” the inscriptions refer to.
Khasehemwi’s name is modelled after the name of the founder of the dynasty, Hotepsekhemwi and means “the two powerful ones have arisen”, to which the addition 'the two lords are at peace within him' also hints at the re-unification of a divided country. This is confirmed by the fact that Khasekhemwi’s name has been found throughout the country, the first king since Ninetjer for whom this has been the case.

Horus Hotepsekhemwi

Horus Nebre

Horus Ninetjer

Weneg

Seth Peribsen

Horus Sekhemib

Horus-Seth Khasekhemwi